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<ol class="chapter"><li class="expanded affix "><a href="title-page.html">The Rust Programming Language</a></li><li class="expanded affix "><a href="foreword.html">Foreword</a></li><li class="expanded affix "><a href="ch00-00-introduction.html">Introduction</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch01-00-getting-started.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.</strong> Getting Started</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch01-01-installation.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.1.</strong> Installation</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch01-02-hello-world.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.2.</strong> Hello, World!</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch01-03-hello-cargo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.3.</strong> Hello, Cargo!</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.</strong> Programming a Guessing Game</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-00-common-programming-concepts.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.</strong> Common Programming Concepts</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.1.</strong> Variables and Mutability</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-02-data-types.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.2.</strong> Data Types</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-03-how-functions-work.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.3.</strong> Functions</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-04-comments.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.4.</strong> Comments</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-05-control-flow.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.5.</strong> Control Flow</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch04-00-understanding-ownership.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.</strong> Understanding Ownership</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.1.</strong> What is Ownership?</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.2.</strong> References and Borrowing</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch04-03-slices.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.3.</strong> The Slice Type</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch05-00-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.</strong> Using Structs to Structure Related Data</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch05-01-defining-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.</strong> Defining and Instantiating Structs</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch05-02-example-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.2.</strong> An Example Program Using Structs</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch05-03-method-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.3.</strong> Method Syntax</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch06-00-enums.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.</strong> Enums and Pattern Matching</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch06-01-defining-an-enum.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.1.</strong> Defining an Enum</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch06-02-match.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.</strong> The match Control Flow Operator</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch06-03-if-let.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.3.</strong> Concise Control Flow with if let</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch07-00-managing-growing-projects-with-packages-crates-and-modules.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.</strong> Managing Growing Projects with Packages, Crates, and Modules</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch07-01-packages-and-crates.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.1.</strong> Packages and Crates</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.2.</strong> Defining Modules to Control Scope and Privacy</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.html"><
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<h1 class="menu-title">The Rust Programming Language</h1>
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<main>
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<h2><a class="header" href="#appendix-g---how-rust-is-made-and-nightly-rust" id="appendix-g---how-rust-is-made-and-nightly-rust">Appendix G - How Rust is Made and “Nightly Rust”</a></h2>
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<p>This appendix is about how Rust is made and how that affects you as a Rust
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developer.</p>
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<h3><a class="header" href="#stability-without-stagnation" id="stability-without-stagnation">Stability Without Stagnation</a></h3>
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<p>As a language, Rust cares a <em>lot</em> about the stability of your code. We want
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Rust to be a rock-solid foundation you can build on, and if things were
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constantly changing, that would be impossible. At the same time, if we can’t
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experiment with new features, we may not find out important flaws until after
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their release, when we can no longer change things.</p>
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<p>Our solution to this problem is what we call “stability without stagnation”,
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and our guiding principle is this: you should never have to fear upgrading to a
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new version of stable Rust. Each upgrade should be painless, but should also
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bring you new features, fewer bugs, and faster compile times.</p>
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<h3><a class="header" href="#choo-choo-release-channels-and-riding-the-trains" id="choo-choo-release-channels-and-riding-the-trains">Choo, Choo! Release Channels and Riding the Trains</a></h3>
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<p>Rust development operates on a <em>train schedule</em>. That is, all development is
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done on the <code>master</code> branch of the Rust repository. Releases follow a software
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release train model, which has been used by Cisco IOS and other software
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projects. There are three <em>release channels</em> for Rust:</p>
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<ul>
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<li>Nightly</li>
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<li>Beta</li>
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<li>Stable</li>
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</ul>
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<p>Most Rust developers primarily use the stable channel, but those who want to
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try out experimental new features may use nightly or beta.</p>
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<p>Here’s an example of how the development and release process works: let’s
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assume that the Rust team is working on the release of Rust 1.5. That release
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happened in December of 2015, but it will provide us with realistic version
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numbers. A new feature is added to Rust: a new commit lands on the <code>master</code>
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branch. Each night, a new nightly version of Rust is produced. Every day is a
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release day, and these releases are created by our release infrastructure
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automatically. So as time passes, our releases look like this, once a night:</p>
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<pre><code class="language-text">nightly: * - - * - - *
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</code></pre>
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<p>Every six weeks, it’s time to prepare a new release! The <code>beta</code> branch of the
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Rust repository branches off from the <code>master</code> branch used by nightly. Now,
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there are two releases:</p>
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<pre><code class="language-text">nightly: * - - * - - *
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beta: *
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</code></pre>
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<p>Most Rust users do not use beta releases actively, but test against beta in
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their CI system to help Rust discover possible regressions. In the meantime,
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there’s still a nightly release every night:</p>
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<pre><code class="language-text">nightly: * - - * - - * - - * - - *
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|
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beta: *
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</code></pre>
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<p>Let’s say a regression is found. Good thing we had some time to test the beta
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release before the regression snuck into a stable release! The fix is applied
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to <code>master</code>, so that nightly is fixed, and then the fix is backported to the
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<code>beta</code> branch, and a new release of beta is produced:</p>
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<pre><code class="language-text">nightly: * - - * - - * - - * - - * - - *
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beta: * - - - - - - - - *
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</code></pre>
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<p>Six weeks after the first beta was created, it’s time for a stable release! The
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<code>stable</code> branch is produced from the <code>beta</code> branch:</p>
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<pre><code class="language-text">nightly: * - - * - - * - - * - - * - - * - * - *
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beta: * - - - - - - - - *
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stable: *
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</code></pre>
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<p>Hooray! Rust 1.5 is done! However, we’ve forgotten one thing: because the six
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weeks have gone by, we also need a new beta of the <em>next</em> version of Rust, 1.6.
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So after <code>stable</code> branches off of <code>beta</code>, the next version of <code>beta</code> branches
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off of <code>nightly</code> again:</p>
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<pre><code class="language-text">nightly: * - - * - - * - - * - - * - - * - * - *
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| |
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beta: * - - - - - - - - * *
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stable: *
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</code></pre>
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<p>This is called the “train model” because every six weeks, a release “leaves the
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station”, but still has to take a journey through the beta channel before it
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arrives as a stable release.</p>
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<p>Rust releases every six weeks, like clockwork. If you know the date of one Rust
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release, you can know the date of the next one: it’s six weeks later. A nice
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aspect of having releases scheduled every six weeks is that the next train is
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coming soon. If a feature happens to miss a particular release, there’s no need
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to worry: another one is happening in a short time! This helps reduce pressure
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to sneak possibly unpolished features in close to the release deadline.</p>
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<p>Thanks to this process, you can always check out the next build of Rust and
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verify for yourself that it’s easy to upgrade to: if a beta release doesn’t
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work as expected, you can report it to the team and get it fixed before the
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next stable release happens! Breakage in a beta release is relatively rare, but
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<code>rustc</code> is still a piece of software, and bugs do exist.</p>
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<h3><a class="header" href="#unstable-features" id="unstable-features">Unstable Features</a></h3>
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<p>There’s one more catch with this release model: unstable features. Rust uses a
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technique called “feature flags” to determine what features are enabled in a
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given release. If a new feature is under active development, it lands on
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<code>master</code>, and therefore, in nightly, but behind a <em>feature flag</em>. If you, as a
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user, wish to try out the work-in-progress feature, you can, but you must be
|
|||
|
|
using a nightly release of Rust and annotate your source code with the
|
|||
|
|
appropriate flag to opt in.</p>
|
|||
|
|
<p>If you’re using a beta or stable release of Rust, you can’t use any feature
|
|||
|
|
flags. This is the key that allows us to get practical use with new features
|
|||
|
|
before we declare them stable forever. Those who wish to opt into the bleeding
|
|||
|
|
edge can do so, and those who want a rock-solid experience can stick with
|
|||
|
|
stable and know that their code won’t break. Stability without stagnation.</p>
|
|||
|
|
<p>This book only contains information about stable features, as in-progress
|
|||
|
|
features are still changing, and surely they’ll be different between when this
|
|||
|
|
book was written and when they get enabled in stable builds. You can find
|
|||
|
|
documentation for nightly-only features online.</p>
|
|||
|
|
<h3><a class="header" href="#rustup-and-the-role-of-rust-nightly" id="rustup-and-the-role-of-rust-nightly">Rustup and the Role of Rust Nightly</a></h3>
|
|||
|
|
<p>Rustup makes it easy to change between different release channels of Rust, on a
|
|||
|
|
global or per-project basis. By default, you’ll have stable Rust installed. To
|
|||
|
|
install nightly, for example:</p>
|
|||
|
|
<pre><code class="language-text">$ rustup install nightly
|
|||
|
|
</code></pre>
|
|||
|
|
<p>You can see all of the <em>toolchains</em> (releases of Rust and associated
|
|||
|
|
components) you have installed with <code>rustup</code> as well. Here’s an example on one
|
|||
|
|
of your authors’ Windows computer:</p>
|
|||
|
|
<pre><code class="language-powershell">> rustup toolchain list
|
|||
|
|
stable-x86_64-pc-windows-msvc (default)
|
|||
|
|
beta-x86_64-pc-windows-msvc
|
|||
|
|
nightly-x86_64-pc-windows-msvc
|
|||
|
|
</code></pre>
|
|||
|
|
<p>As you can see, the stable toolchain is the default. Most Rust users use stable
|
|||
|
|
most of the time. You might want to use stable most of the time, but use
|
|||
|
|
nightly on a specific project, because you care about a cutting-edge feature.
|
|||
|
|
To do so, you can use <code>rustup override</code> in that project’s directory to set the
|
|||
|
|
nightly toolchain as the one <code>rustup</code> should use when you’re in that directory:</p>
|
|||
|
|
<pre><code class="language-text">$ cd ~/projects/needs-nightly
|
|||
|
|
$ rustup override set nightly
|
|||
|
|
</code></pre>
|
|||
|
|
<p>Now, every time you call <code>rustc</code> or <code>cargo</code> inside of
|
|||
|
|
<em>~/projects/needs-nightly</em>, <code>rustup</code> will make sure that you are using nightly
|
|||
|
|
Rust, rather than your default of stable Rust. This comes in handy when you
|
|||
|
|
have a lot of Rust projects!</p>
|
|||
|
|
<h3><a class="header" href="#the-rfc-process-and-teams" id="the-rfc-process-and-teams">The RFC Process and Teams</a></h3>
|
|||
|
|
<p>So how do you learn about these new features? Rust’s development model follows
|
|||
|
|
a <em>Request For Comments (RFC) process</em>. If you’d like an improvement in Rust,
|
|||
|
|
you can write up a proposal, called an RFC.</p>
|
|||
|
|
<p>Anyone can write RFCs to improve Rust, and the proposals are reviewed and
|
|||
|
|
discussed by the Rust team, which is comprised of many topic subteams. There’s
|
|||
|
|
a full list of the teams <a href="https://www.rust-lang.org/governance">on Rust’s
|
|||
|
|
website</a>, which includes teams for
|
|||
|
|
each area of the project: language design, compiler implementation,
|
|||
|
|
infrastructure, documentation, and more. The appropriate team reads the
|
|||
|
|
proposal and the comments, writes some comments of their own, and eventually,
|
|||
|
|
there’s consensus to accept or reject the feature.</p>
|
|||
|
|
<p>If the feature is accepted, an issue is opened on the Rust repository, and
|
|||
|
|
someone can implement it. The person who implements it very well may not be the
|
|||
|
|
person who proposed the feature in the first place! When the implementation is
|
|||
|
|
ready, it lands on the <code>master</code> branch behind a feature gate, as we discussed
|
|||
|
|
in the <a href="#unstable-features">“Unstable Features”</a><!-- ignore --> section.</p>
|
|||
|
|
<p>After some time, once Rust developers who use nightly releases have been able
|
|||
|
|
to try out the new feature, team members will discuss the feature, how it’s
|
|||
|
|
worked out on nightly, and decide if it should make it into stable Rust or not.
|
|||
|
|
If the decision is to move forward, the feature gate is removed, and the
|
|||
|
|
feature is now considered stable! It rides the trains into a new stable release
|
|||
|
|
of Rust.</p>
|
|||
|
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|
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