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<ol class="chapter"><li class="expanded affix "><a href="title-page.html">The Rust Programming Language</a></li><li class="expanded affix "><a href="foreword.html">Foreword</a></li><li class="expanded affix "><a href="ch00-00-introduction.html">Introduction</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch01-00-getting-started.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.</strong> Getting Started</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch01-01-installation.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.1.</strong> Installation</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch01-02-hello-world.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.2.</strong> Hello, World!</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch01-03-hello-cargo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.3.</strong> Hello, Cargo!</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.</strong> Programming a Guessing Game</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-00-common-programming-concepts.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.</strong> Common Programming Concepts</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.1.</strong> Variables and Mutability</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-02-data-types.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.2.</strong> Data Types</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-03-how-functions-work.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.3.</strong> Functions</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-04-comments.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.4.</strong> Comments</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-05-control-flow.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.5.</strong> Control Flow</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch04-00-understanding-ownership.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.</strong> Understanding Ownership</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.1.</strong> What is Ownership?</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.2.</strong> References and Borrowing</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch04-03-slices.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.3.</strong> The Slice Type</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch05-00-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.</strong> Using Structs to Structure Related Data</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch05-01-defining-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.</strong> Defining and Instantiating Structs</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch05-02-example-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.2.</strong> An Example Program Using Structs</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch05-03-method-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.3.</strong> Method Syntax</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch06-00-enums.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.</strong> Enums and Pattern Matching</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch06-01-defining-an-enum.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.1.</strong> Defining an Enum</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch06-02-match.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.</strong> The match Control Flow Operator</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch06-03-if-let.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.3.</strong> Concise Control Flow with if let</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch07-00-managing-growing-projects-with-packages-crates-and-modules.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.</strong> Managing Growing Projects with Packages, Crates, and Modules</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch07-01-packages-and-crates.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.1.</strong> Packages and Crates</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.2.</strong> Defining Modules to Control Scope and Privacy</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.3.</strong> Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module Tree</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch07-04-bringing-paths-into-scope-with-the-use-keyword.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.4.</strong> Bringing Paths Into Scope with the use Keyword</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch07-05-separating-modules-into-different-files.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.5.</strong> Separating Modules into Different Files</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch08-00-common-collections.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.</strong> Common Collections</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch08-01-vectors.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.1.</strong> Storing Lists of Values with Vectors</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch08-02-strings.html" class="active"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.2.</strong> Storing UTF-8 Encoded Text with Strings</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch08-03-hash-maps.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.3.</strong> Storing Keys with Associated Values in Hash Maps</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch09-00-error-handling.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.</strong> Error Handling</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch09-01-unrecoverable-errors-with-panic.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.1.</strong> Unrecoverable Errors with panic!</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.2.</strong> Recoverable Errors with Result</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.3.</strong> To panic! or Not To panic!</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch10-00-generics.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.</strong> Generic Types, Traits, and Lifetimes</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch10-01-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.1.</strong> Generic Data Types</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch10-02-traits.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.2.</strong> Traits: Defining Shared Behavior</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.3.</strong> Validating References with Lifetimes</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch11-00-testing.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.</strong> Writing Automated Tests</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch11-01-writing-tests.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.1.</strong> How to Write Tests</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch11-02-running-tests.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.2.</strong> Controlling How Tests Are Run</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch11-03-test-organization.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.3.</strong> Test Organization</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch12-00-an-io-project.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.</strong> An I/O Project: Building a Command Line Program</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.1.</strong> Accepting Command Line Arguments</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch12-02-reading-a-file.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.2.</strong> Reading a File</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.3.</strong> Refactoring to Improve Modularity and Error Handling</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.4.</strong> Developing the Library’s Functionality with Test Driven Development</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.5.</strong> Working with Environment Variables</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch12-06-writing-to-stderr-instead-of-stdout.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.6.</strong> Writing Error Messages to Standard Error Instead of Standard Output</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch13-00-functional-features.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.</strong> Functional Language Features: Iterators and Closures</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch13-01-closures.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.1.</strong> Closures: Anonymous Functions that Can Capture Their Environment</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch13-02-iterators.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.2.</strong> Processing a Series of Items with Iterators</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch13-03-improving-our-io-project.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.3.</strong> Improving Our I/O Project</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch13-04-performance.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.4.</strong> Comparing Performance: Loops vs. Iterators</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch14-00-more-about-cargo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.</strong> More about Cargo and Crates.io</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch14-01-release-profiles.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.1.</strong> Customizing Builds with Release Profiles</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.2.</strong> Publishing a Crate to Crates.io</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch14-03-cargo-workspaces.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.3.</strong> Cargo Workspaces</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch14-04-installing-binaries.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.4.</strong> Installing Binaries from Crates.io with cargo install</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch14-05-extending-cargo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.5.</strong> Extending Cargo with Custom Commands</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch15-00-smart-pointers.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.</strong> Smart Pointers</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch15-01-box.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.1.</strong> Using Box<T> to Point to Data on the Heap</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch15-02-deref.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.2.</strong> Treating Smart Pointers Like Regular References with the Deref Trait</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch15-03-drop.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.3.</strong> Running Code on Cleanup with the Drop Trait</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch15-04-rc.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.4.</strong> Rc<T>, the Reference Counted Smart Pointer</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch15-05-interior-mutability.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.5.</strong> RefCell<T> and the Interior Mutability Pattern</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch15-06-reference-cycles.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.6.</strong> Reference Cycles Can Leak Memory</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch16-00-concurrency.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.</strong> Fearless Concurrency</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch16-01-threads.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.1.</strong> Using Threads to Run Code Simultaneously</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch16-02-message-passing.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.2.</strong> Using Message Passing to Transfer Data Between Threads</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch16-03-shared-state.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.3.</strong> Shared-State Concurrency</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.4.</strong> Extensible Concurrency with the Sync and Send Traits</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch17-00-oop.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.</strong> Object Oriented Programming Features of Rust</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch17-01-what-is-oo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.1.</strong> Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch17-02-trait-objects.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.2.</strong> Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.3.</strong> Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch18-00-patterns.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.</strong> Patterns and Matching</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.1.</strong> All the Places Patterns Can Be Used</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch18-02-refutability.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.2.</strong> Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.3.</strong> Pattern Syntax</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch19-00-advanced-features.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.</strong> Advanced Features</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.1.</strong> Unsafe Rust</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch19-03-advanced-traits.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.2.</strong> Advanced Traits</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch19-04-advanced-types.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.3.</strong> Advanced Types</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.4.</strong> Advanced Functions and Closures</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch19-06-macros.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.5.</strong> Macros</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.</strong> Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch20-01-single-threaded.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.1.</strong> Building a Single-Threaded Web Server</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch20-02-multithreaded.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.2.</strong> Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.3.</strong> Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="appendix-00.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.</strong> Appendix</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="appendix-01-keywords.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.1.</strong> A - Keywords</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="appendix-02-operators.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.2.</strong> B - Operators and Symbols</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="appendix-03-derivable-traits.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.3.</strong> C - Derivable Traits</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="appendix-04-useful-development-tools.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.4.</strong> D - Useful Development Tools</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="appendix-05-editions.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.5.</strong> E - Editions</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="appendix-06-translation.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.6.</strong> F - Translations of the Book</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="appendix-07-nightly-rust.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.7.</strong> G - How Rust is Made and “Nightly Rust”</a></li></ol></li></ol>
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<h2><a class="header" href="#storing-utf-8-encoded-text-with-strings" id="storing-utf-8-encoded-text-with-strings">Storing UTF-8 Encoded Text with Strings</a></h2>
<p>We talked about strings in Chapter 4, but we’ll look at them in more depth now.
New Rustaceans commonly get stuck on strings for a combination of three
reasons: Rust’s propensity for exposing possible errors, strings being a more
complicated data structure than many programmers give them credit for, and
UTF-8. These factors combine in a way that can seem difficult when you’re
coming from other programming languages.</p>
<p>It’s useful to discuss strings in the context of collections because strings
are implemented as a collection of bytes, plus some methods to provide useful
functionality when those bytes are interpreted as text. In this section, we’ll
talk about the operations on <code>String</code> that every collection type has, such as
creating, updating, and reading. We’ll also discuss the ways in which <code>String</code>
is different from the other collections, namely how indexing into a <code>String</code> is
complicated by the differences between how people and computers interpret
<code>String</code> data.</p>
<h3><a class="header" href="#what-is-a-string" id="what-is-a-string">What Is a String?</a></h3>
<p>We’ll first define what we mean by the term <em>string</em>. Rust has only one string
type in the core language, which is the string slice <code>str</code> that is usually seen
in its borrowed form <code>&amp;str</code>. In Chapter 4, we talked about <em>string slices</em>,
which are references to some UTF-8 encoded string data stored elsewhere. String
literals, for example, are stored in the program’s binary and are therefore
string slices.</p>
<p>The <code>String</code> type, which is provided by Rust’s standard library rather than
coded into the core language, is a growable, mutable, owned, UTF-8 encoded
string type. When Rustaceans refer to “strings” in Rust, they usually mean the
<code>String</code> and the string slice <code>&amp;str</code> types, not just one of those types.
Although this section is largely about <code>String</code>, both types are used heavily in
Rust’s standard library, and both <code>String</code> and string slices are UTF-8 encoded.</p>
<p>Rust’s standard library also includes a number of other string types, such as
<code>OsString</code>, <code>OsStr</code>, <code>CString</code>, and <code>CStr</code>. Library crates can provide even
more options for storing string data. See how those names all end in <code>String</code>
or <code>Str</code>? They refer to owned and borrowed variants, just like the <code>String</code> and
<code>str</code> types you’ve seen previously. These string types can store text in
different encodings or be represented in memory in a different way, for
example. We won’t discuss these other string types in this chapter; see their
API documentation for more about how to use them and when each is appropriate.</p>
<h3><a class="header" href="#creating-a-new-string" id="creating-a-new-string">Creating a New String</a></h3>
<p>Many of the same operations available with <code>Vec&lt;T&gt;</code> are available with <code>String</code>
as well, starting with the <code>new</code> function to create a string, shown in Listing
8-11.</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>let mut s = String::new();
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p><span class="caption">Listing 8-11: Creating a new, empty <code>String</code></span></p>
<p>This line creates a new empty string called <code>s</code>, which we can then load data
into. Often, we’ll have some initial data that we want to start the string
with. For that, we use the <code>to_string</code> method, which is available on any type
that implements the <code>Display</code> trait, as string literals do. Listing 8-12 shows
two examples.</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>let data = &quot;initial contents&quot;;
let s = data.to_string();
// the method also works on a literal directly:
let s = &quot;initial contents&quot;.to_string();
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p><span class="caption">Listing 8-12: Using the <code>to_string</code> method to create a
<code>String</code> from a string literal</span></p>
<p>This code creates a string containing <code>initial contents</code>.</p>
<p>We can also use the function <code>String::from</code> to create a <code>String</code> from a string
literal. The code in Listing 8-13 is equivalent to the code from Listing 8-12
that uses <code>to_string</code>.</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>let s = String::from(&quot;initial contents&quot;);
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p><span class="caption">Listing 8-13: Using the <code>String::from</code> function to create
a <code>String</code> from a string literal</span></p>
<p>Because strings are used for so many things, we can use many different generic
APIs for strings, providing us with a lot of options. Some of them can seem
redundant, but they all have their place! In this case, <code>String::from</code> and
<code>to_string</code> do the same thing, so which you choose is a matter of style.</p>
<p>Remember that strings are UTF-8 encoded, so we can include any properly encoded
data in them, as shown in Listing 8-14.</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>let hello = String::from(&quot;السلام عليكم&quot;);
let hello = String::from(&quot;Dobrý den&quot;);
let hello = String::from(&quot;Hello&quot;);
let hello = String::from(&quot;שָׁלוֹם&quot;);
let hello = String::from(&quot;नमस्ते&quot;);
let hello = String::from(&quot;こんにちは&quot;);
let hello = String::from(&quot;안녕하세요&quot;);
let hello = String::from(&quot;你好&quot;);
let hello = String::from(&quot;Olá&quot;);
let hello = String::from(&quot;Здравствуйте&quot;);
let hello = String::from(&quot;Hola&quot;);
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p><span class="caption">Listing 8-14: Storing greetings in different languages in
strings</span></p>
<p>All of these are valid <code>String</code> values.</p>
<h3><a class="header" href="#updating-a-string" id="updating-a-string">Updating a String</a></h3>
<p>A <code>String</code> can grow in size and its contents can change, just like the contents
of a <code>Vec&lt;T&gt;</code>, if you push more data into it. In addition, you can conveniently
use the <code>+</code> operator or the <code>format!</code> macro to concatenate <code>String</code> values.</p>
<h4><a class="header" href="#appending-to-a-string-with-push_str-and-push" id="appending-to-a-string-with-push_str-and-push">Appending to a String with <code>push_str</code> and <code>push</code></a></h4>
<p>We can grow a <code>String</code> by using the <code>push_str</code> method to append a string slice,
as shown in Listing 8-15.</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>let mut s = String::from(&quot;foo&quot;);
s.push_str(&quot;bar&quot;);
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p><span class="caption">Listing 8-15: Appending a string slice to a <code>String</code>
using the <code>push_str</code> method</span></p>
<p>After these two lines, <code>s</code> will contain <code>foobar</code>. The <code>push_str</code> method takes a
string slice because we don’t necessarily want to take ownership of the
parameter. For example, the code in Listing 8-16 shows that it would be
unfortunate if we weren’t able to use <code>s2</code> after appending its contents to <code>s1</code>.</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>let mut s1 = String::from(&quot;foo&quot;);
let s2 = &quot;bar&quot;;
s1.push_str(s2);
println!(&quot;s2 is {}&quot;, s2);
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p><span class="caption">Listing 8-16: Using a string slice after appending its
contents to a <code>String</code></span></p>
<p>If the <code>push_str</code> method took ownership of <code>s2</code>, we wouldn’t be able to print
its value on the last line. However, this code works as we’d expect!</p>
<p>The <code>push</code> method takes a single character as a parameter and adds it to the
<code>String</code>. Listing 8-17 shows code that adds the letter <em>l</em> to a <code>String</code> using
the <code>push</code> method.</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>let mut s = String::from(&quot;lo&quot;);
s.push('l');
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p><span class="caption">Listing 8-17: Adding one character to a <code>String</code> value
using <code>push</code></span></p>
<p>As a result of this code, <code>s</code> will contain <code>lol</code>.</p>
<h4><a class="header" href="#concatenation-with-the--operator-or-the-format-macro" id="concatenation-with-the--operator-or-the-format-macro">Concatenation with the <code>+</code> Operator or the <code>format!</code> Macro</a></h4>
<p>Often, you’ll want to combine two existing strings. One way is to use the <code>+</code>
operator, as shown in Listing 8-18.</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>let s1 = String::from(&quot;Hello, &quot;);
let s2 = String::from(&quot;world!&quot;);
let s3 = s1 + &amp;s2; // note s1 has been moved here and can no longer be used
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p><span class="caption">Listing 8-18: Using the <code>+</code> operator to combine two
<code>String</code> values into a new <code>String</code> value</span></p>
<p>The string <code>s3</code> will contain <code>Hello, world!</code> as a result of this code. The
reason <code>s1</code> is no longer valid after the addition and the reason we used a
reference to <code>s2</code> has to do with the signature of the method that gets called
when we use the <code>+</code> operator. The <code>+</code> operator uses the <code>add</code> method, whose
signature looks something like this:</p>
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">fn add(self, s: &amp;str) -&gt; String {
</code></pre>
<p>This isn’t the exact signature that’s in the standard library: in the standard
library, <code>add</code> is defined using generics. Here, we’re looking at the signature
of <code>add</code> with concrete types substituted for the generic ones, which is what
happens when we call this method with <code>String</code> values. We’ll discuss generics
in Chapter 10. This signature gives us the clues we need to understand the
tricky bits of the <code>+</code> operator.</p>
<p>First, <code>s2</code> has an <code>&amp;</code>, meaning that we’re adding a <em>reference</em> of the second
string to the first string because of the <code>s</code> parameter in the <code>add</code> function:
we can only add a <code>&amp;str</code> to a <code>String</code>; we can’t add two <code>String</code> values
together. But wait—the type of <code>&amp;s2</code> is <code>&amp;String</code>, not <code>&amp;str</code>, as specified in
the second parameter to <code>add</code>. So why does Listing 8-18 compile?</p>
<p>The reason we’re able to use <code>&amp;s2</code> in the call to <code>add</code> is that the compiler
can <em>coerce</em> the <code>&amp;String</code> argument into a <code>&amp;str</code>. When we call the <code>add</code>
method, Rust uses a <em>deref coercion</em>, which here turns <code>&amp;s2</code> into <code>&amp;s2[..]</code>.
We’ll discuss deref coercion in more depth in Chapter 15. Because <code>add</code> does
not take ownership of the <code>s</code> parameter, <code>s2</code> will still be a valid <code>String</code>
after this operation.</p>
<p>Second, we can see in the signature that <code>add</code> takes ownership of <code>self</code>,
because <code>self</code> does <em>not</em> have an <code>&amp;</code>. This means <code>s1</code> in Listing 8-18 will be
moved into the <code>add</code> call and no longer be valid after that. So although <code>let s3 = s1 + &amp;s2;</code> looks like it will copy both strings and create a new one, this
statement actually takes ownership of <code>s1</code>, appends a copy of the contents of
<code>s2</code>, and then returns ownership of the result. In other words, it looks like
it’s making a lot of copies but isn’t; the implementation is more efficient
than copying.</p>
<p>If we need to concatenate multiple strings, the behavior of the <code>+</code> operator
gets unwieldy:</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>let s1 = String::from(&quot;tic&quot;);
let s2 = String::from(&quot;tac&quot;);
let s3 = String::from(&quot;toe&quot;);
let s = s1 + &quot;-&quot; + &amp;s2 + &quot;-&quot; + &amp;s3;
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p>At this point, <code>s</code> will be <code>tic-tac-toe</code>. With all of the <code>+</code> and <code>&quot;</code>
characters, it’s difficult to see what’s going on. For more complicated string
combining, we can use the <code>format!</code> macro:</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>let s1 = String::from(&quot;tic&quot;);
let s2 = String::from(&quot;tac&quot;);
let s3 = String::from(&quot;toe&quot;);
let s = format!(&quot;{}-{}-{}&quot;, s1, s2, s3);
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p>This code also sets <code>s</code> to <code>tic-tac-toe</code>. The <code>format!</code> macro works in the same
way as <code>println!</code>, but instead of printing the output to the screen, it returns
a <code>String</code> with the contents. The version of the code using <code>format!</code> is much
easier to read and doesn’t take ownership of any of its parameters.</p>
<h3><a class="header" href="#indexing-into-strings" id="indexing-into-strings">Indexing into Strings</a></h3>
<p>In many other programming languages, accessing individual characters in a
string by referencing them by index is a valid and common operation. However,
if you try to access parts of a <code>String</code> using indexing syntax in Rust, you’ll
get an error. Consider the invalid code in Listing 8-19.</p>
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore does_not_compile">let s1 = String::from(&quot;hello&quot;);
let h = s1[0];
</code></pre>
<p><span class="caption">Listing 8-19: Attempting to use indexing syntax with a
String</span></p>
<p>This code will result in the following error:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">error[E0277]: the trait bound `std::string::String: std::ops::Index&lt;{integer}&gt;` is not satisfied
--&gt;
|
3 | let h = s1[0];
| ^^^^^ the type `std::string::String` cannot be indexed by `{integer}`
|
= help: the trait `std::ops::Index&lt;{integer}&gt;` is not implemented for `std::string::String`
</code></pre>
<p>The error and the note tell the story: Rust strings don’t support indexing. But
why not? To answer that question, we need to discuss how Rust stores strings in
memory.</p>
<h4><a class="header" href="#internal-representation" id="internal-representation">Internal Representation</a></h4>
<p>A <code>String</code> is a wrapper over a <code>Vec&lt;u8&gt;</code>. Let’s look at some of our properly
encoded UTF-8 example strings from Listing 8-14. First, this one:</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>let len = String::from(&quot;Hola&quot;).len();
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p>In this case, <code>len</code> will be 4, which means the vector storing the string “Hola”
is 4 bytes long. Each of these letters takes 1 byte when encoded in UTF-8. But
what about the following line? (Note that this string begins with the capital
Cyrillic letter Ze, not the Arabic number 3.)</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>let len = String::from(&quot;Здравствуйте&quot;).len();
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p>Asked how long the string is, you might say 12. However, Rust’s answer is 24:
that’s the number of bytes it takes to encode “Здравствуйте” in UTF-8, because
each Unicode scalar value in that string takes 2 bytes of storage. Therefore,
an index into the string’s bytes will not always correlate to a valid Unicode
scalar value. To demonstrate, consider this invalid Rust code:</p>
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore does_not_compile">let hello = &quot;Здравствуйте&quot;;
let answer = &amp;hello[0];
</code></pre>
<p>What should the value of <code>answer</code> be? Should it be <code>З</code>, the first letter? When
encoded in UTF-8, the first byte of <code>З</code> is <code>208</code> and the second is <code>151</code>, so
<code>answer</code> should in fact be <code>208</code>, but <code>208</code> is not a valid character on its
own. Returning <code>208</code> is likely not what a user would want if they asked for the
first letter of this string; however, that’s the only data that Rust has at
byte index 0. Users generally don’t want the byte value returned, even if the
string contains only Latin letters: if <code>&amp;&quot;hello&quot;[0]</code> were valid code that
returned the byte value, it would return <code>104</code>, not <code>h</code>. To avoid returning an
unexpected value and causing bugs that might not be discovered immediately,
Rust doesn’t compile this code at all and prevents misunderstandings early in
the development process.</p>
<h4><a class="header" href="#bytes-and-scalar-values-and-grapheme-clusters-oh-my" id="bytes-and-scalar-values-and-grapheme-clusters-oh-my">Bytes and Scalar Values and Grapheme Clusters! Oh My!</a></h4>
<p>Another point about UTF-8 is that there are actually three relevant ways to
look at strings from Rust’s perspective: as bytes, scalar values, and grapheme
clusters (the closest thing to what we would call <em>letters</em>).</p>
<p>If we look at the Hindi word “नमस्ते” written in the Devanagari script, it is
stored as a vector of <code>u8</code> values that looks like this:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">[224, 164, 168, 224, 164, 174, 224, 164, 184, 224, 165, 141, 224, 164, 164,
224, 165, 135]
</code></pre>
<p>That’s 18 bytes and is how computers ultimately store this data. If we look at
them as Unicode scalar values, which are what Rust’s <code>char</code> type is, those
bytes look like this:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">['न', 'म', 'स', '्', 'त', 'े']
</code></pre>
<p>There are six <code>char</code> values here, but the fourth and sixth are not letters:
they’re diacritics that don’t make sense on their own. Finally, if we look at
them as grapheme clusters, we’d get what a person would call the four letters
that make up the Hindi word:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">[&quot;न&quot;, &quot;म&quot;, &quot;स्&quot;, &quot;ते&quot;]
</code></pre>
<p>Rust provides different ways of interpreting the raw string data that computers
store so that each program can choose the interpretation it needs, no matter
what human language the data is in.</p>
<p>A final reason Rust doesn’t allow us to index into a <code>String</code> to get a
character is that indexing operations are expected to always take constant time
(O(1)). But it isn’t possible to guarantee that performance with a <code>String</code>,
because Rust would have to walk through the contents from the beginning to the
index to determine how many valid characters there were.</p>
<h3><a class="header" href="#slicing-strings" id="slicing-strings">Slicing Strings</a></h3>
<p>Indexing into a string is often a bad idea because it’s not clear what the
return type of the string-indexing operation should be: a byte value, a
character, a grapheme cluster, or a string slice. Therefore, Rust asks you to
be more specific if you really need to use indices to create string slices. To
be more specific in your indexing and indicate that you want a string slice,
rather than indexing using <code>[]</code> with a single number, you can use <code>[]</code> with a
range to create a string slice containing particular bytes:</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>let hello = &quot;Здравствуйте&quot;;
let s = &amp;hello[0..4];
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p>Here, <code>s</code> will be a <code>&amp;str</code> that contains the first 4 bytes of the string.
Earlier, we mentioned that each of these characters was 2 bytes, which means
<code>s</code> will be <code>Зд</code>.</p>
<p>What would happen if we used <code>&amp;hello[0..1]</code>? The answer: Rust would panic at
runtime in the same way as if an invalid index were accessed in a vector:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">thread 'main' panicked at 'byte index 1 is not a char boundary; it is inside 'З' (bytes 0..2) of `Здравствуйте`', src/libcore/str/mod.rs:2188:4
</code></pre>
<p>You should use ranges to create string slices with caution, because doing so
can crash your program.</p>
<h3><a class="header" href="#methods-for-iterating-over-strings" id="methods-for-iterating-over-strings">Methods for Iterating Over Strings</a></h3>
<p>Fortunately, you can access elements in a string in other ways.</p>
<p>If you need to perform operations on individual Unicode scalar values, the best
way to do so is to use the <code>chars</code> method. Calling <code>chars</code> on “नमस्ते” separates
out and returns six values of type <code>char</code>, and you can iterate over the result
to access each element:</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>for c in &quot;नमस्ते&quot;.chars() {
println!(&quot;{}&quot;, c);
}
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p>This code will print the following:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">न
म
स
्
त
े
</code></pre>
<p>The <code>bytes</code> method returns each raw byte, which might be appropriate for your
domain:</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>for b in &quot;नमस्ते&quot;.bytes() {
println!(&quot;{}&quot;, b);
}
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p>This code will print the 18 bytes that make up this <code>String</code>:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">224
164
// --snip--
165
135
</code></pre>
<p>But be sure to remember that valid Unicode scalar values may be made up of more
than 1 byte.</p>
<p>Getting grapheme clusters from strings is complex, so this functionality is not
provided by the standard library. Crates are available on
<a href="https://crates.io/">crates.io</a> if this is the functionality you need.</p>
<h3><a class="header" href="#strings-are-not-so-simple" id="strings-are-not-so-simple">Strings Are Not So Simple</a></h3>
<p>To summarize, strings are complicated. Different programming languages make
different choices about how to present this complexity to the programmer. Rust
has chosen to make the correct handling of <code>String</code> data the default behavior
for all Rust programs, which means programmers have to put more thought into
handling UTF-8 data upfront. This trade-off exposes more of the complexity of
strings than is apparent in other programming languages, but it prevents you
from having to handle errors involving non-ASCII characters later in your
development life cycle.</p>
<p>Let’s switch to something a bit less complex: hash maps!</p>
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