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<ol class="chapter"><li class="expanded affix "><a href="title-page.html">The Rust Programming Language</a></li><li class="expanded affix "><a href="foreword.html">Foreword</a></li><li class="expanded affix "><a href="ch00-00-introduction.html">Introduction</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch01-00-getting-started.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.</strong> Getting Started</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch01-01-installation.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.1.</strong> Installation</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch01-02-hello-world.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.2.</strong> Hello, World!</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch01-03-hello-cargo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.3.</strong> Hello, Cargo!</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.</strong> Programming a Guessing Game</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-00-common-programming-concepts.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.</strong> Common Programming Concepts</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.1.</strong> Variables and Mutability</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-02-data-types.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.2.</strong> Data Types</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-03-how-functions-work.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.3.</strong> Functions</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-04-comments.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.4.</strong> Comments</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch03-05-control-flow.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.5.</strong> Control Flow</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch04-00-understanding-ownership.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.</strong> Understanding Ownership</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.1.</strong> What is Ownership?</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.html" class="active"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.2.</strong> References and Borrowing</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch04-03-slices.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.3.</strong> The Slice Type</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch05-00-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.</strong> Using Structs to Structure Related Data</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch05-01-defining-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.</strong> Defining and Instantiating Structs</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch05-02-example-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.2.</strong> An Example Program Using Structs</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch05-03-method-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.3.</strong> Method Syntax</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch06-00-enums.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.</strong> Enums and Pattern Matching</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch06-01-defining-an-enum.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.1.</strong> Defining an Enum</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch06-02-match.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.</strong> The match Control Flow Operator</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch06-03-if-let.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.3.</strong> Concise Control Flow with if let</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch07-00-managing-growing-projects-with-packages-crates-and-modules.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.</strong> Managing Growing Projects with Packages, Crates, and Modules</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch07-01-packages-and-crates.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.1.</strong> Packages and Crates</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.2.</strong> Defining Modules to Control Scope and Privacy</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.3.</strong> Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module Tree</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch07-04-bringing-paths-into-scope-with-the-use-keyword.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.4.</strong> Bringing Paths Into Scope with the use Keyword</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch07-05-separating-modules-into-different-files.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.5.</strong> Separating Modules into Different Files</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch08-00-common-collections.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.</strong> Common Collections</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch08-01-vectors.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.1.</strong> Storing Lists of Values with Vectors</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch08-02-strings.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.2.</strong> Storing UTF-8 Encoded Text with Strings</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch08-03-hash-maps.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.3.</strong> Storing Keys with Associated Values in Hash Maps</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch09-00-error-handling.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.</strong> Error Handling</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch09-01-unrecoverable-errors-with-panic.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.1.</strong> Unrecoverable Errors with panic!</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.2.</strong> Recoverable Errors with Result</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.3.</strong> To panic! or Not To panic!</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch10-00-generics.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.</strong> Generic Types, Traits, and Lifetimes</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch10-01-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.1.</strong> Generic Data Types</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch10-02-traits.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.2.</strong> Traits: Defining Shared Behavior</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.3.</strong> Validating References with Lifetimes</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch11-00-testing.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.</strong> Writing Automated Tests</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch11-01-writing-tests.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.1.</strong> How to Write Tests</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch11-02-running-tests.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.2.</strong> Controlling How Tests Are Run</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch11-03-test-organization.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.3.</strong> Test Organization</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch12-00-an-io-project.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.</strong> An I/O Project: Building a Command Line Program</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.1.</strong> Accepting Command Line Arguments</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch12-02-reading-a-file.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.2.</strong> Reading a File</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.3.</strong> Refactoring to Improve Modularity and Error Handling</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.4.</strong> Developing the Library’s Functionality with Test Driven Development</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.5.</strong> Working with Environment Variables</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch12-06-writing-to-stderr-instead-of-stdout.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.6.</strong> Writing Error Messages to Standard Error Instead of Standard Output</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch13-00-functional-features.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.</strong> Functional Language Features: Iterators and Closures</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch13-01-closures.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.1.</strong> Closures: Anonymous Functions that Can Capture Their Environment</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch13-02-iterators.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.2.</strong> Processing a Series of Items with Iterators</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch13-03-improving-our-io-project.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.3.</strong> Improving Our I/O Project</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch13-04-performance.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.4.</strong> Comparing Performance: Loops vs. Iterators</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch14-00-more-about-cargo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.</strong> More about Cargo and Crates.io</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch14-01-release-profiles.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.1.</strong> Customizing Builds with Release Profiles</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.2.</strong> Publishing a Crate to Crates.io</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch14-03-cargo-workspaces.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.3.</strong> Cargo Workspaces</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch14-04-installing-binaries.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.4.</strong> Installing Binaries from Crates.io with cargo install</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch14-05-extending-cargo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.5.</strong> Extending Cargo with Custom Commands</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch15-00-smart-pointers.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.</strong> Smart Pointers</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch15-01-box.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.1.</strong> Using Box<T> to Point to Data on the Heap</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch15-02-deref.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.2.</strong> Treating Smart Pointers Like Regular References with the Deref Trait</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch15-03-drop.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.3.</strong> Running Code on Cleanup with the Drop Trait</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch15-04-rc.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.4.</strong> Rc<T>, the Reference Counted Smart Pointer</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch15-05-interior-mutability.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.5.</strong> RefCell<T> and the Interior Mutability Pattern</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch15-06-reference-cycles.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.6.</strong> Reference Cycles Can Leak Memory</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch16-00-concurrency.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.</strong> Fearless Concurrency</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch16-01-threads.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.1.</strong> Using Threads to Run Code Simultaneously</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch16-02-message-passing.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.2.</strong> Using Message Passing to Transfer Data Between Threads</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch16-03-shared-state.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.3.</strong> Shared-State Concurrency</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.4.</strong> Extensible Concurrency with the Sync and Send Traits</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch17-00-oop.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.</strong> Object Oriented Programming Features of Rust</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch17-01-what-is-oo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.1.</strong> Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch17-02-trait-objects.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.2.</strong> Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.3.</strong> Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch18-00-patterns.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.</strong> Patterns and Matching</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.1.</strong> All the Places Patterns Can Be Used</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch18-02-refutability.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.2.</strong> Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.3.</strong> Pattern Syntax</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch19-00-advanced-features.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.</strong> Advanced Features</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.1.</strong> Unsafe Rust</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch19-03-advanced-traits.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.2.</strong> Advanced Traits</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch19-04-advanced-types.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.3.</strong> Advanced Types</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.4.</strong> Advanced Functions and Closures</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch19-06-macros.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.5.</strong> Macros</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.</strong> Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="ch20-01-single-threaded.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.1.</strong> Building a Single-Threaded Web Server</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch20-02-multithreaded.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.2.</strong> Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.3.</strong> Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup</a></li></ol></li><li class="expanded "><a href="appendix-00.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.</strong> Appendix</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li class="expanded "><a href="appendix-01-keywords.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.1.</strong> A - Keywords</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="appendix-02-operators.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.2.</strong> B - Operators and Symbols</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="appendix-03-derivable-traits.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.3.</strong> C - Derivable Traits</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="appendix-04-useful-development-tools.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.4.</strong> D - Useful Development Tools</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="appendix-05-editions.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.5.</strong> E - Editions</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="appendix-06-translation.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.6.</strong> F - Translations of the Book</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="appendix-07-nightly-rust.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.7.</strong> G - How Rust is Made and “Nightly Rust”</a></li></ol></li></ol>
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<h2><a class="header" href="#references-and-borrowing" id="references-and-borrowing">References and Borrowing</a></h2>
<p>The issue with the tuple code in Listing 4-5 is that we have to return the
<code>String</code> to the calling function so we can still use the <code>String</code> after the
call to <code>calculate_length</code>, because the <code>String</code> was moved into
<code>calculate_length</code>.</p>
<p>Here is how you would define and use a <code>calculate_length</code> function that has a
reference to an object as a parameter instead of taking ownership of the
value:</p>
<p><span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span></p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">fn main() {
let s1 = String::from(&quot;hello&quot;);
let len = calculate_length(&amp;s1);
println!(&quot;The length of '{}' is {}.&quot;, s1, len);
}
fn calculate_length(s: &amp;String) -&gt; usize {
s.len()
}
</code></pre></pre>
<p>First, notice that all the tuple code in the variable declaration and the
function return value is gone. Second, note that we pass <code>&amp;s1</code> into
<code>calculate_length</code> and, in its definition, we take <code>&amp;String</code> rather than
<code>String</code>.</p>
<p>These ampersands are <em>references</em>, and they allow you to refer to some value
without taking ownership of it. Figure 4-5 shows a diagram.</p>
<img alt="&String s pointing at String s1" src="img/trpl04-05.svg" class="center" />
<p><span class="caption">Figure 4-5: A diagram of <code>&amp;String s</code> pointing at <code>String s1</code></span></p>
<blockquote>
<p>Note: The opposite of referencing by using <code>&amp;</code> is <em>dereferencing</em>, which is
accomplished with the dereference operator, <code>*</code>. We’ll see some uses of the
dereference operator in Chapter 8 and discuss details of dereferencing in
Chapter 15.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Let’s take a closer look at the function call here:</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span><span class="boring">fn calculate_length(s: &amp;String) -&gt; usize {
</span><span class="boring"> s.len()
</span><span class="boring">}
</span>let s1 = String::from(&quot;hello&quot;);
let len = calculate_length(&amp;s1);
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p>The <code>&amp;s1</code> syntax lets us create a reference that <em>refers</em> to the value of <code>s1</code>
but does not own it. Because it does not own it, the value it points to will
not be dropped when the reference goes out of scope.</p>
<p>Likewise, the signature of the function uses <code>&amp;</code> to indicate that the type of
the parameter <code>s</code> is a reference. Let’s add some explanatory annotations:</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>fn calculate_length(s: &amp;String) -&gt; usize { // s is a reference to a String
s.len()
} // Here, s goes out of scope. But because it does not have ownership of what
// it refers to, nothing happens.
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p>The scope in which the variable <code>s</code> is valid is the same as any function
parameter’s scope, but we don’t drop what the reference points to when it goes
out of scope because we don’t have ownership. When functions have references as
parameters instead of the actual values, we won’t need to return the values in
order to give back ownership, because we never had ownership.</p>
<p>We call having references as function parameters <em>borrowing</em>. As in real life,
if a person owns something, you can borrow it from them. When you’re done, you
have to give it back.</p>
<p>So what happens if we try to modify something we’re borrowing? Try the code in
Listing 4-6. Spoiler alert: it doesn’t work!</p>
<p><span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span></p>
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore does_not_compile">fn main() {
let s = String::from(&quot;hello&quot;);
change(&amp;s);
}
fn change(some_string: &amp;String) {
some_string.push_str(&quot;, world&quot;);
}
</code></pre>
<p><span class="caption">Listing 4-6: Attempting to modify a borrowed value</span></p>
<p>Here’s the error:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">error[E0596]: cannot borrow immutable borrowed content `*some_string` as mutable
--&gt; error.rs:8:5
|
7 | fn change(some_string: &amp;String) {
| ------- use `&amp;mut String` here to make mutable
8 | some_string.push_str(&quot;, world&quot;);
| ^^^^^^^^^^^ cannot borrow as mutable
</code></pre>
<p>Just as variables are immutable by default, so are references. We’re not
allowed to modify something we have a reference to.</p>
<h3><a class="header" href="#mutable-references" id="mutable-references">Mutable References</a></h3>
<p>We can fix the error in the code from Listing 4-6 with just a small tweak:</p>
<p><span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span></p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">fn main() {
let mut s = String::from(&quot;hello&quot;);
change(&amp;mut s);
}
fn change(some_string: &amp;mut String) {
some_string.push_str(&quot;, world&quot;);
}
</code></pre></pre>
<p>First, we had to change <code>s</code> to be <code>mut</code>. Then we had to create a mutable
reference with <code>&amp;mut s</code> and accept a mutable reference with <code>some_string: &amp;mut String</code>.</p>
<p>But mutable references have one big restriction: you can have only one mutable
reference to a particular piece of data in a particular scope. This code will
fail:</p>
<p><span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span></p>
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore does_not_compile">let mut s = String::from(&quot;hello&quot;);
let r1 = &amp;mut s;
let r2 = &amp;mut s;
println!(&quot;{}, {}&quot;, r1, r2);
</code></pre>
<p>Here’s the error:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">error[E0499]: cannot borrow `s` as mutable more than once at a time
--&gt; src/main.rs:5:14
|
4 | let r1 = &amp;mut s;
| ------ first mutable borrow occurs here
5 | let r2 = &amp;mut s;
| ^^^^^^ second mutable borrow occurs here
6 |
7 | println!(&quot;{}, {}&quot;, r1, r2);
| -- first borrow later used here
</code></pre>
<p>This restriction allows for mutation but in a very controlled fashion. It’s
something that new Rustaceans struggle with, because most languages let you
mutate whenever you’d like.</p>
<p>The benefit of having this restriction is that Rust can prevent data races at
compile time. A <em>data race</em> is similar to a race condition and happens when
these three behaviors occur:</p>
<ul>
<li>Two or more pointers access the same data at the same time.</li>
<li>At least one of the pointers is being used to write to the data.</li>
<li>There’s no mechanism being used to synchronize access to the data.</li>
</ul>
<p>Data races cause undefined behavior and can be difficult to diagnose and fix
when you’re trying to track them down at runtime; Rust prevents this problem
from happening because it won’t even compile code with data races!</p>
<p>As always, we can use curly brackets to create a new scope, allowing for
multiple mutable references, just not <em>simultaneous</em> ones:</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>let mut s = String::from(&quot;hello&quot;);
{
let r1 = &amp;mut s;
} // r1 goes out of scope here, so we can make a new reference with no problems.
let r2 = &amp;mut s;
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p>A similar rule exists for combining mutable and immutable references. This code
results in an error:</p>
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore does_not_compile">let mut s = String::from(&quot;hello&quot;);
let r1 = &amp;s; // no problem
let r2 = &amp;s; // no problem
let r3 = &amp;mut s; // BIG PROBLEM
println!(&quot;{}, {}, and {}&quot;, r1, r2, r3);
</code></pre>
<p>Here’s the error:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">error[E0502]: cannot borrow `s` as mutable because it is also borrowed as immutable
--&gt; src/main.rs:6:14
|
4 | let r1 = &amp;s; // no problem
| -- immutable borrow occurs here
5 | let r2 = &amp;s; // no problem
6 | let r3 = &amp;mut s; // BIG PROBLEM
| ^^^^^^ mutable borrow occurs here
7 |
8 | println!(&quot;{}, {}, and {}&quot;, r1, r2, r3);
| -- immutable borrow later used here
</code></pre>
<p>Whew! We <em>also</em> cannot have a mutable reference while we have an immutable one.
Users of an immutable reference don’t expect the values to suddenly change out
from under them! However, multiple immutable references are okay because no one
who is just reading the data has the ability to affect anyone else’s reading of
the data.</p>
<p>Note that a reference’s scope starts from where it is introduced and continues
through the last time that reference is used. For instance, this code will
compile because the last usage of the immutable references occurs before the
mutable reference is introduced:</p>
<!-- This example is being ignored because there's a bug in rustdoc making the
edition2018 not work. The bug is currently fixed in nightly, so when we update
the book to >= 1.35, `ignore` can be removed from this example. -->
<pre><code class="language-rust edition2018 ignore">let mut s = String::from(&quot;hello&quot;);
let r1 = &amp;s; // no problem
let r2 = &amp;s; // no problem
println!(&quot;{} and {}&quot;, r1, r2);
// r1 and r2 are no longer used after this point
let r3 = &amp;mut s; // no problem
println!(&quot;{}&quot;, r3);
</code></pre>
<p>The scopes of the immutable references <code>r1</code> and <code>r2</code> end after the <code>println!</code>
where they are last used, which is before the mutable reference <code>r3</code> is
created. These scopes don’t overlap, so this code is allowed.</p>
<p>Even though borrowing errors may be frustrating at times, remember that it’s
the Rust compiler pointing out a potential bug early (at compile time rather
than at runtime) and showing you exactly where the problem is. Then you don’t
have to track down why your data isn’t what you thought it was.</p>
<h3><a class="header" href="#dangling-references" id="dangling-references">Dangling References</a></h3>
<p>In languages with pointers, it’s easy to erroneously create a <em>dangling
pointer</em>, a pointer that references a location in memory that may have been
given to someone else, by freeing some memory while preserving a pointer to
that memory. In Rust, by contrast, the compiler guarantees that references will
never be dangling references: if you have a reference to some data, the
compiler will ensure that the data will not go out of scope before the
reference to the data does.</p>
<p>Let’s try to create a dangling reference, which Rust will prevent with a
compile-time error:</p>
<p><span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span></p>
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore does_not_compile">fn main() {
let reference_to_nothing = dangle();
}
fn dangle() -&gt; &amp;String {
let s = String::from(&quot;hello&quot;);
&amp;s
}
</code></pre>
<p>Here’s the error:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">error[E0106]: missing lifetime specifier
--&gt; main.rs:5:16
|
5 | fn dangle() -&gt; &amp;String {
| ^ expected lifetime parameter
|
= help: this function's return type contains a borrowed value, but there is
no value for it to be borrowed from
= help: consider giving it a 'static lifetime
</code></pre>
<p>This error message refers to a feature we haven’t covered yet: lifetimes. We’ll
discuss lifetimes in detail in Chapter 10. But, if you disregard the parts
about lifetimes, the message does contain the key to why this code is a problem:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">this function's return type contains a borrowed value, but there is no value
for it to be borrowed from.
</code></pre>
<p>Let’s take a closer look at exactly what’s happening at each stage of our
<code>dangle</code> code:</p>
<p><span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span></p>
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore does_not_compile">fn dangle() -&gt; &amp;String { // dangle returns a reference to a String
let s = String::from(&quot;hello&quot;); // s is a new String
&amp;s // we return a reference to the String, s
} // Here, s goes out of scope, and is dropped. Its memory goes away.
// Danger!
</code></pre>
<p>Because <code>s</code> is created inside <code>dangle</code>, when the code of <code>dangle</code> is finished,
<code>s</code> will be deallocated. But we tried to return a reference to it. That means
this reference would be pointing to an invalid <code>String</code>. That’s no good! Rust
won’t let us do this.</p>
<p>The solution here is to return the <code>String</code> directly:</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
<span class="boring">#![allow(unused_variables)]
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
</span>fn no_dangle() -&gt; String {
let s = String::from(&quot;hello&quot;);
s
}
<span class="boring">}
</span></code></pre></pre>
<p>This works without any problems. Ownership is moved out, and nothing is
deallocated.</p>
<h3><a class="header" href="#the-rules-of-references" id="the-rules-of-references">The Rules of References</a></h3>
<p>Let’s recap what we’ve discussed about references:</p>
<ul>
<li>At any given time, you can have <em>either</em> one mutable reference <em>or</em> any
number of immutable references.</li>
<li>References must always be valid.</li>
</ul>
<p>Next, we’ll look at a different kind of reference: slices.</p>
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